The Role of Architectural Design in Promoting the Social Objectives of Zoos

A Study of Zoo Exhibit Design with Reference to Selected Exhibits in Singapore Zoological Gardens

by Michael Graetz

NOTES

[1] The Seletar Zoological Gardens Sub-Committee, Proposal for the Development of the Seletar Zoological Gardens, (Singapore 1969), p. 3.
[2] Bernard Harrison, A Study of the Planning and Design Principles Involved in the Development of Mammal Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo, (Singapore 1986), pp. 12-19.

PART 1: PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ZOO DESIGN

CHAPTER 1.2 HISTORY OF ZOOS

[1] Gustave Loisel, Histoire des Menageries, (Paris, 1912)., p. 45: “Arrivés à destination, les lions étaint placés dans l’enceinte du palais royal ou lâchés en demi-liberté dans vastes parcs spéciaux, plantés de palmier, de vignes, et de fleurs, et que les auteurs grecs appellent des Paradeisos. . . .”

[“Arrived at destination, the lions were placed in the enclosure of the royal palace or released in half-freedom in vast special parks, planted with palm trees, vines, and flowers, and that the Greek authors called Paradeisos. . . .”]
[2] Ibid. p. 46.
[3] Bannister Fletcher, A History of Architecture, 19th ed., John Musgrove (ed.), (London, 1987), p. 52.
[4] Bernard Livingston, Zoo: Animals, People, Places, (New York, 1974), p. 17.
[5] Ibid., p. 21.
[6] Ibid., p. 26.
[7] Edward T. Bennett, The Tower Menagerie comprising the natural History of the Animals contained in that establishment; with anecdotes of their characters and History., (London, 1829), p. 154, cited by Loisel, op. cit., p. 292.
[8] Jon C. Coe, “The Evolution of Zoo Animal Exhibits”, The Role of Zoos in Biological Conservation: Past, Present and Future, 1992, AAZPA Symposium, reprinted in ZOO ZEN vol. X, No. 1, August 1994, p. 31.
[9] Loisel, Op. Cit., p. 191.
[10] Coe, op. cit., p. 29.
[11] Livingston, op. cit., p.33.
[12] Coe, op. cit., p. 35.
[13] While it is Victorian in spirit, its origin is earlier. Bacon wrote in Latin, ‘Nam et ipsa scientia potesta est'. Francis Bacon, “Religious Meditations”, cited in: The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, 2nd ed. (paperback), (Oxford, 1981), p. 14.
[14] Fletcher, op. cit., p. 1058.
[15] Philip Pregill and Nancy Volkman, Landscapes in History: Design and Planning in the Western Tradition, (New York, 1993), p. 513.
[16] Coe, op. cit., p. 33.
[17] This was actually discovered by Hermann Landois, founder of the Munster zoo: John Coburn, Munster's Zoological Garden, International Zoo News, Vol. 228, No. 132, Dec 1975, p. 17.
[18] Coe, op. cit., p. 34.
[19] Ibid., p. 38.
[20] Pregill and Volkman, op. cit., p. 613.
[21] Ibid., p. 520. The final parenthesis is misleading: the small Central Park menagerie was renovated by its managers at the Bronx Zoo and re-opened in 1988 as a fully-fledged modern zoo. “Children's zoo” implies that it is for domestic animals. Cf. Sarah Rossbach, Central Park Zoo, Landscape Architecture, January 1989, pp. 80 83, and James S. Russell, Zoo Story, Architectural Record, February 1989, pp. 84 89.
[22] Hancocks is more scathing of this exhibit designed in 1934 by Berthold Lubetkin: “under a preservation order, London Zoo has to retain an exhibit in no way suited to housing live penguins”, David Hancocks, Animals and Architecture, (London 1971), p. 129.
[23] Jon C Coe, 1993 AAZPA School for Professional Management Development: Design Directions 218, reprinted in ZOO ZEN, vol. X, No. 1, August 1994, p. 1.
[24] It is this author's understanding that ‘Gunite’, along with ‘Shotcrete’, was originally a proprietary term for a method of pneumatically projecting or spraying concrete with the difference being that water is added at the nozzle to a dry mix for ‘Gunite’ while ‘Shotcrete’ is pumped as a liquid mix. Nowadays the two terms are used interchangeably with ‘Gunite’ being the most widely used term. ‘Gunite’ is thus used throughout this dissertation as the generic term for either method.
[25] David Hancocks, Animals and Architecture, (London, 1971).
[26] G[rant] R. Jones, D[ennis] E. Paulson and J[on] C. Coe, Zoo Design Methodologies According to Bioclimatic and Zoogeographic Principles, Zoo Design 3, (Paignton, U. K. 1982), p. 155.
[27] Grant R. Jones, Jon C. Coe & Dennis E. Paulson, Woodland Park Zoo: Long Range Plan, Development Guidelines and Exhibit Scenarios, (Seattle Washington, 1976).
[28] Coe, 1993 AAZPA School for Professional Management Development, p. 3, and Coe, The Evolution of Zoo Animal Exhibits, p.38. Coe also credits the North Carolina Zoological Park.
[29] Pregill and Volkman, op. cit., p. 714.
[30] Ibid.
[31] J[aques] Nouvel, The History, Present State and Evolution of Zoo Architecture, Zoo Design 1 (Paignton, U. K. 1975), pp. 29-32.
[32] Ibid., p. 30.
[33] Ibid.
[34] Kenneth J. Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 82.
[35] Coe, The Evolution of Zoo Animal Exhibits, p.39.

CHAPTER 2.1 THE NATURE OF THE MOAT

[1] Kenneth J. Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 88.
[2] Ted Finlay, Lawrence R. James and Terry L. Maple, People’s Perceptions of Animals: The Influence of Zoo Environment, Env. and Behav., vol. 20 no. 4 July 1988. Not only does this study show that naturalistic exhibits per se receive (somewhat) greater visitor approval, but that if visitors discern the slightest visual cue of artificiality in an otherwise naturalistic exhibit, the exhibit is seen as a ‘tame’ zoo enclosure.
[3] Polakowski, op. cit. p. 14. This is also supported by the ‘Primate Kingdom’ Case Study, this dissertation, which found that visitors underestimate the actual widths of visible water moats by around one third to a half. The moat that succeeded best had aquatic vegetation on the banks which could visually be mistaken for solid ground.
[4] The concealed dry moat in Singapore Zoo referred to earlier achieved this effect by having no distinct edge on either side. The viewer's line of sight always forms a tangent to the slope of the nearer side, like the Eighteenth Century ha ha or sunken fence.
[5] A. P. G. Michelmore, Uses of Plants in Zoos, Int. Zoo Yb. vol. 29, 1990, p. 32.
[6] David Shepherdson, Designing Environments to Stimulate Natural Behaviour Patterns in Captive Animals, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, UK 1992), p. 164.
[7] Ibid. p. 166.
[8] “Non-lethal” needs qualification. Voltages are often much greater than domestic cattle fences and electricians require considerable zoological advice for the placement, voltage and appropriateness in every situation.
[9] James Fisher, Zoos of the World: The story of Animals in Captivity, (Garden City, New York 1967), p. 166.
[10] See for example: R. Bigalke, The Use of Moats in Zoological Gardens, Int. Zoo Yb. 2, 1960, pp. 62-68; Ronald T. Reuther, Barrier Dimensions for Lions, Tigers, Bears and Great Apes, Int. Zoo Yb. 16, 1976, pp. 217-222; C[hristoph] Scherpner, Moated and Fenced Enclosures at Frankfurt Zoo, Int. Zoo Yb. 11, 1971, pp. 59-62; J. C. Wears, Moats and Ditches at London and Whipsnade Zoos, Int. Zoo Yb. 19, 1979, pp. 274-280.
[11] Fisher, op. cit., p. 166.
[12] See H. Hediger, The Psychology and Behaviour of Animals in Zoos and Circuses, (New York 1968), for a discussion on the process of domestication in zoo.
[13] Seeing animals which are not bothered by this proximity can conveys a message of respect owed when the animal appears relaxed and in command of its own territory—the behavioural distinction for visitors between ‘free’ and ‘caged’ animals.

CHAPTER 2.2 EXHIBIT PLANTING

[1] Trevor Poole, The Environmental Needs of Different Species of Animals in Captivity, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 153.
[2] Philip J. Craul, Urban Soil in Landscape Design, (New York), p 6.
[3] Robin B. Foster, Heterogeneity and Disturbance in Tropical Vegetation, in Conservation Biology: An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspective, eds. Michael E. Soule and Bruce A. Wilcox, (Sunderland, Massachusetts 1980), p. 76.
[4] Ibid., pp. 75-92. Rates of successional turnover vary from fifty to one hundred years in exposed forests to more than two hundred years in sheltered areas.
[5] Mark K. Wourms, Zoo Exhibits and the Role of Zoo Horticulture, Int. Zoo Yb. 29, 1990, p. 3.
[6] Kenneth J. Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 139.
[7] Ibid., p. 4
[8] Alagappasamy Chelliah, personal communication.
[9] E. J. H. Corner, Wayside Trees of Malaya, vol. 1 (Singapore, 1952), p 153.
[10] Hsuan Keng, Orders and Families of Malayan Seed Plants, (Singapore 1969), p.7.
[11] Virginia Wall, Streamside: An Endangered Species Garden, Int., Zoo Yb. 29, p. 29.

CHAPTER 2.3 MESH AND FENCE BARRIERS

[1] Bernard Harrison, A Study of the Planning and Design Principles Involved in the Development of Mammal Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo, (Singapore 1986), pp. 86-92.
[2] "For those animals in which any barrier (moat, fence, or wall) is visible . . . the animals are rated equally restricted, tame, and passive as their cage zoo counterparts.” Ted Finlay, Lawrence R. James, Terry L. Maple, People's Perceptions of Animals: The Influence of Zoo Environment, Env. and Behav., vol. 20, No. 4 July 1988, p. 520.
[3] Harrison, op. cit., p. 86.
[4] Kenneth J. Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 13.
[5] Lyn de Alwis dissents from this view, however. (Personal communication).
[6] Catherine Ingraham, I Want to Talk . . ., Inland Architect, 1989, Sept.-Oct., vol. 33 No. 5, p.54.

CHAPTER 2.4 EXHIBITRY: TOOLS OF HABITAT SIMULATION

[1] Peter Stevens, Introduction, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 3.
[2] James E. Lovelock, Elements, in: Gaia: An Atlas of Planetary Management, Dr Norman Myers ed., (Garden City, New York, 1984), p. 100.
[3] Bernard Harrison, A Study of the Planning and Design Principles Involved in the Development of Mammal Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo, (Singapore 1986), p. 71.
[4] Kenneth J. Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 82.
[5] Barbara Brady, Jack Huelsman and Edward Maruska, Cats in Context: Cincinnati Zoo Cat Exhibit, Int. Zoo Yb. 29, (1990), pp. 171,174.
[6] Trevor Poole, The Environmental Needs of Different Species of Animals in Captivity, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 153.
[7] Donald W. Jackson, Landscaping in Hostile Environments, Int. Zoo Yb. 29, (1990), pp. 10-15.
[8] Personal communication.
[9] Bernard Harrison, The Design of Primate Islands at the Singapore Zoological Gardens, Zoo Design 3 (Paignton, U. K. 1982), pp. 139-147; Bernard Harrison, A Study of the Planning and Design Principles Involved in the Development of Mammal Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo, (Singapore 1986), pp. 124-131.
[10] Markowitz and Hancocks have been principal proponents of the alternative approaches: Hal Markowitz and Victor J. Stevens, eds., Behavior of Captive Wild Animals, (Chicago 1978); Markowitz, Behavioral Enrichment in the Zoo, (New York 1982); David Hancocks, Naturalistic Solutions to Zoo Design Problems, Zoo Design 3, (Paignton, U. K. 1982), pp. 166-173.
[11] The two terms are used here for naturalistic and mechanistic approaches respectively, but they are often confusingly used interchangeably.
[12] Poole, op. cit.
[13] David Shepherdson, Designing Environments to Stimulate Natural Behaviour Patterns in Captive Animals, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, UK 1992), pp. 156-168.
[14] Lars Lunding Anderson, Right Enclosure Design - Before Stories Can Be Told, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), pp. 71-85.
[15] R. J. P. O'Grady, G. Law, H. Boyle, A. MacDonald and J. Johnstone, Himalayan Black Bear Selenarctos thibetanus Exhibit at Glasgow Zoo, Int. Zoo Yb. 29 (1990), pp. 233-240.
[16] Alagappasamy Chelliah, personal communication.
[17] Anderson, op. cit., p. 80.
[18] Poole, op. cit.
[19] Jon C. Coe, What's the Message? Exhibit Design for Education, AAZPA Regional Conf. Proc. (1987), p. 20.
[20] Ibid. p. 21.

CHAPTER 2.5 DESIGNING IN GRAPHICS

[1] Beverly Serrell, The Evolution of Educational Graphics in Zoos, Env. and Behav. vol. 20, no. 4, July 1988, p. 399.
[2] Ibid., p. 397.
[3] Trevor Poole, The Environmental Needs of Different Species of Animals in Captivity, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 153.
[4] Serrell, op. cit., p. 412., calls these ‘experience-driven model’ and ‘educational teaching model’ respectively.
[5] Lars Lunding Anderson, Right Enclosure Design - Before Stories Can Be Told, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 73: Anderson states, on the other hand, that the scope for interpretation is only limited by “isolated” enclosure design. Ibid., p. 71.
[6] Ibid., p. 74.
[7] Lyn M. Milan and Mark K. Wourms, The World of Birds at the Bronx Zoo/Wildlife Conservation Park: Visitor Expectations and Experiences, Int. Zoo Yb. 32, 1993, p. 209.
[8] Jerome V. d'Agostino, Ross J. Loomis and Betsy Webb, Attitudes, Beliefs, Intended Behaviors, and Exhibit Evaluation, Visitor Studies 4, (Jacksonville, Alabama 1992), p. 92.
[9] Jan Hatley, Building In the Message., Zoo Design 4, (Paignton U. K. 1992) p. 62.
[10] John A. Sanford and Ted Finlay, The Effect of Exhibit Signage on Visitor Behavior, EDRA 19, 1988, p. 247.
[11] Stephen Bitgood, Donald Patterson and Arlene Benefield, Exhibit Design and Visitor Behavior: Empirical Relationships, En. and Behav., vol. 20, No. 4, July 1988, p. 475.
[12] Serrell, op. cit., p. 406.
[13] J. Anthony Schibley, Hold That Thought: Creating a Cutting Edge Interpretive Design Package that Visitors will Remember, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 144.
[14] Collectively, these avenues of education are often called non-formal because they take place outside formal classroom situations.
[15] Jon C. Coe, “Design and Perception: Making the Zoo Experience Real,” Zoo Biology, 4:2 1985, p. 204.
[16] David Churchman and Nancy Hanson, Fundamental Issues in Zoo Education: A Review of the Literature, IZE paper, (Melbourne 1986), p. 21.

CHAPTER 2.6 SHELTER

[1] Beverly Serrell, The Evolution of Educational Graphics in Zoos, Env. and Behav. vol. 20, no. 4, July 1988, p. 399.
[2] Singapore Zoo has, however, built several air-conditioned shelters for visitors in recent years; but these are exceptions and should not detract from the case made here for the importance of natural ventilation.
[3] Pedro Trebbau, Tropical Zoo Problems, Zoo Design 2, (Paignton, U. K. 1977), p. 138.
[4] A. Djakoure, The Effects of the Hot, Wet Tropical Climate on Zoos: The Case of the National Zoological Park of Abidjan (Ivory Coast), Zoo Design 2 (Paignton, U. K. 1977), p. 135.
[5] John W. Toovey, Hot Country Zoos, Zoo Design 3 (Paignton, U. K. 1982), p. 125.
[6] Bernard Harrison, A Study of the Planning and Design Principles Involved in the Development of Mammal Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo, (Singapore 1986), p. 173.

CHAPTER 2.7 HABITAT LIGHTING

[1] C[hristoph] Scherpner, Artificial Climate in Animal Exhibits: Animal Needs and Technical Solutions, in Zoo Design 3, (Paignton, U. K. 1982), p. 65. Dr Scherpner discusses some aspects of the role light plays in animals' lives, including warmth, ultra-violet radiation, and as a time regulator.
[2] Christoph Scherpner, Artificial Lighting, transcript of a discussion, in Zoo Design 2 (Paignton 1977), p. 124.
[3] The term, ‘fluorescent’ strictly describes any light source produced by excitation of phosphors coating the glass of a discharge lamp, not necessary the familiar fluorescent tube. This covers a very wide range of lamps which with various optics and output spectra and can have quite good focusing and colour rendering properties.
[4] Christoph Scherpner in Artificial Lighting, Zoo Design 2, (Paignton 1977), p. 124, states in a comment attributed to him that ‘high pressure lamps’ “showed up the birds and the decorations better” while fluorescent light would “kill quite a lot of the colours of birds.” Whether either is natural is not questioned; however, as Simon Corder mentions, humans tend to see colours as they are supposed to be: “in most situations we wish to see white as white; and so we do.” “Report on Lighting the Asian Night Safari” (unpublished report for Singapore Zoo, 1988), p. 5.
[5] This is done with a white ceiling merging seamlessly with a white or mural-painted back wall and even illumination. An example of this does exist in Singapore in the penguin display of Jurong Bird Park.
[6] Simon Corder, Asian Night Safari: Lighting Report, (Singapore 1988), p. 10.
[7] George. S. Cansdale, Modern Lighting for Zoos, in Zoo Design 2, (1977), pp. 19-123.
[8] Attributed to Roy E. Calvin in Artificial Lighting, Zoo Design 2, (1977), p. 124.
[9] Simon Corder, op. cit., Appendix B. The main body of this report also summarises these physical and biological aspects quite thoroughly.
[10] Simon Corder, op. cit., p. 7.
[11] Simon Corder, Lighting Night Safari, (Singapore 1994), p. 6.
[12] Bernard Harrison and Michael Graetz, The Night Safari - Singapore, Int. Zoo Yb., (in publication, 1995), p 5.
[13] Christoph Scherpner, Artificial Climate in Animal Exhibits, Zoo Design 3, (Paignton, U. K. 1982), p. 65.
[14] Harrison, op. cit., p. 7.
[15] Kenneth J. Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 16.
[16] Polakowski, (Ibid.), cites only the use of spotlights mounted on the monorail at San Diego Wild Animal Park and calls for additional research into concepts and techniques for night lighting, among other uses of artificial light.

PART 3: ARCHITECTURE AND VISITOR BEHAVIOUR IN ZOOS

CHAPTER 3.1 VISITOR BEHAVIOUR

[1] Allan W. Wicker, An Introduction to Ecological Psychology, (Cambridge 1984).
[2] Bruce Allsop, A General History of Architecture, (London 1971), p. 223-228.
[3] Jon Lang, Charles Burnette, Walter Moleski, David Vachon, Designing for Human Behaviour, (Stroudsburg, USA, 1974), p. 5.
[4] Ross J. Loomis, The Countenance of Visitor Studies in the 1980's, Visitor Studies 1, (1988), p. 13.
[5] Ibid. p. 15.
[6] Ted Finlay, Lawrence R James and Terry Maple, People's Perception of Animals: The Influence of Zoo Environment, (1988), Env. and Behav., vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 508 528.
[7] Stephen Bitgood, Donald Patterson and Arlene Benefield, Exhibit Design and Visitor Behavior: Empirical Relationships, (1988), Env. and Behav., vol. 20, no. 4, p. 489.
[8] Janaea Martin and Joseph O'Reilly, Contemporary Environment-Behavior Research in Zoological Parks, Env. and Behav., Vol. 20, no. 4, (1988), p. 394.
[9] Bitgood, et al, op. cit., p. 488.
[10] Beverly Serrell, The Evolution of Educational Graphics in Zoos, Env. and Behav. vol. 20, no. 4, July 1988, p. 411.
[11] Churchman and Hanson, cited earlier, describe common sense as neither in the absence of evidence one way or the other.

CHAPTER 3.2 PERCEPTION OF ZOO EXHIBITS

[1] Kenneth J. Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 13.
[2] Rachel Kaplan and Steven Kaplan, The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective, (New York 1989), p. 10.
[3] Ibid., p. 14.
[4] Edward J. Ruddell, et al, The Psychological Utility of Visual Penetration in Near View Forest Scenic beauty Models, Env. and Behav., Vol. 21 no. 4, Jul. 1989, pp. 393 412.
[5] Jon C. Coe, Design and Perception: Making the Zoo Experience Real, Zoo Biology, Vol. 4 no. 2, (1985) pp. 197-208.
[6] Ted Finlay, Lawrence R James and Terry Maple, People's Perception of Animals: The Influence of Zoo Environment, 1988, Env. and Behav., vol. 20, no. 4, p. 526.
[7] Stephen Verderber, et al, Elderly Persons' Appraisal of the Zoological Environment, Env. & Behav., 20:4 July 1988, p. 503.

CHAPTER 3.3 ARCHITECTURAL AESTHETICS

[1] Anthony C. Antoniades, Poetics of Architecture: Theory of Design, (New York 1990), p. 4.
[2] Ibid., pp. 5-6.
[3] Maggie Keswick, The Chinese Garden: History, Art and Architecture, (London, 1978)
[4] David Hancocks, Seeking to Create Illusions of Wild Places: Master Planning Guidelines for Melbourne Zoo, Parts I, II and III, Landscape Australia, 3/89, 4/89 and 1/90.
[5] Ibid., Part II, p. 421.
[6] S. Campbell, “A New Zoo?”, Zoonooz 55:9, pp. 4 7. Cited in: Joyce Shettel Neuber, “Second and Third Generation Zoo Exhibits: A Comparison of Visitor, Staff and Animal Responses”, Env. and Behav. 20:4 July 1988, p. 453.
[7] Jon C. Coe, Design and Perception: Making the Zoo Experience Real, Zoo Biology, Vol. 4 no. 2, (1985) pp. 197-208, as noted earlier, relates zoo design to a number of psychological principles.
[8] Bernard Harrison, The Evolution of Zoological Gardens, Proc. 46th Ann. Conf. IUDZG, (Singapore 1991). Antibiotics are particularly credited with the easing concern over maintaining sterile conditions.
[9] Bernard Harrison and Michael Graetz, Designing a Naturalistic Environment at the Singapore Zoological Gardens, Architecture Journal 1986, eds. Lo Ching Ning, T. K. Sabapathy, Foo Ah Fong, (Singapore 1986), pp. 2 6.
[10] Kenneth J. Polakowski, Zoo Design: The Reality of Wild Illusions, (Ann Arbor, Michigan 1987), p. 102.
[11] David Shepherdson, Designing Environments to Stimulate Natural Behaviour Patterns in Captive Animals, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, UK 1992), p. 158.
[12] Catherine Ingraham, I Want to Talk . . ., Inland Architect, 1989, Sept.-Oct., vol. 33 No. 5, p.53.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Ibid., p. 54.
[15] Ibid., p. 55.

PART 4: CASE STUDIES

CHAPTER 4.1 POLAR BEAR AND SEALION CASE STUDY

[1] Michael Robinson quotes Desmond Morris: “‘The [animal] non-specialists, . . . are forced to live the lives of opportunists, forever investigating, always on the move.’” Michael H. Robinson, “Homage to Niko Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz: Is Classical Ethology Relevant to Zoos?”, Zoo Biology, 8:3 1989, p 220.
[2] The chief source consulted on the biology of Polar bears is: Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals English Language Edition, 1990, s.v. “True Bears” by Fred Kurt. However, Duplaix and Simon state that males do not den in winter unless the weather becomes very severe, which possibly explains the ability of the bears to go without hibernation in zoos. Nicole Duplaix and Noel Simon, World Guide to Mammals, (New York 1976), p. 161.
[3] Heini Hediger, Wild Animals in Captivity, (New York 1964), p. 147.
[4] Bernard Harrison, Polar Bears in a Tropical Climate, Zoo Design 3, (Paignton, U. K. 1982), p. 117.
[5] Harrison, Mammal Exhibits in a Tropical Zoo, p. 141, points out that this is particularly so in the tropics and the mistake should not be repeated.
[6] Ibid., and Jon C. Coe, Design and Perception: Making the Zoo Experience Real, Zoo Biology, Vol. 4 no. 2, (1985) pp. 197-208.
[7] Kurt, op. cit., pp. 187 and 188.
[8] ". . . seals and walruses are not frequenters of blue swimming pools in the wild.” Johnpaul Jones, “Captive Pinnipeds Without Blue Swimming Pools”, AAZPA 1986 Annual Conference Proceedings, p.343.
[9] Alan Hedge and Karen L. Jamison, “Zoo Exhibit Evaluation: A Multi user Strategy”, AAZPA Regional Conference Proceedings 1990, pp. 536 543.
[10] Hedge and Jamison, op. cit., p. 541.
[11] For example, Wolf and Tymitz's study entitled Do giraffes ever sit?, involving three hundred interviews over six months in National Zoo, Washington. Summarized in: Robert L. Wolf and Barbara L. Tymitz, Studying Visitor Perceptions of Zoo Environments: A Naturalistic View, Int. Zoo Yb., vol. 21, ed. P. J. S. Olney, (London 1981), pp. 49 53.
[12] David Churchman and Charles Bossler, Visitor Behavior at Singapore Zoo, AAZPA Regional Conf. Proc., 1990, pp.320 326.

CHAPTER 4.3 PYGMY HIPPO CASE STUDY

[1] The Seattle-based zoo design firm, Sherman Yañez and Mikami, design consultant: Roger Sherman.
[2] Such a concept exists in Cleveland Zoo, Ohio where the (Nile) hippos can circulate around a central island.

CHAPTER 4.5 'PRIMATE KINGDOM' CASE STUDY

[1] See Section 1.1 of this dissertation and Jon C. Coe “Design and Perception: Making the Zoo Experience Real,” Zoo Biology, 4:197-208 (1985).
[2] David Churchman and Charles Bossler, “Visitor Behaviour at Singapore Zoo”, AAZPA Regional Conference Proceedings 1990, pp.320 326.

CHAPTER 4.7 NIGHT SAFARI CASE STUDY

[1] Bernard Harrison and Michael Graetz, The Night Safari - Singapore, Int. Zoo Yb. (in publication 1995).
[2] Pedro Trebbau, Tropical Zoo Problems, Zoo Design 2, (Paignton, U. K. 1977), p. 140.

PART 5 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 5.1 THE RESPONSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE ZOO DESIGNER

[1] David Hancocks, Animals and Architecture, (London 1971), p. 179. This co-operation between architect and zoo is exemplified by the collaboration that resulted in the master plan for Woodland Park Zoo.
[2] Jeremy Cherfas, Zoo 2000: A Look Beyond the Bars, (London 1984), p. 38.
[3] Bernard Harrison, A Study Of The Planning And Design Principles Of Mammal Exhibits In A Tropical Zoo, (Singapore 1986), p. 24.
[4] The term is taken from: Mary Midgely, Animals and Why They Matter: A Journey around the Species Barrier, (Harmondsworth, England 1983). This book discusses the philosophical background to the homo-centric versus bio-centric exhibit design referred to here.
[5] Harrison, op. cit.
[6] Sources such as the International Zoo Yearbooks and AAZPA conference papers can be mined for such information, but much sifting is required.
[7] Sarah Rossbach, Central Park Zoo, Landscape Architecture (1989), Jan, 80 83, and James S, Russell, Zoo story, Architectural Record, (1989), Feb, 84 89.

CHAPTER 5.2 THE APPLICATION OF DESIGN TO ZOOS

[1] Jean Wineman and Yoon Kyung Choi, A Diachronic Understanding of the Spatial Configuration of a Zoo and its Influence on the Transmission of Knowledge, EDRA 21, (1990), pp. 94-104.
[2] Trevor Poole, The Environmental Needs of Different Species of Animals in Captivity, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 153.
[3] Jan Hatley, Building In the Message, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), pp. 62-65.
[4] J. Anthony Schibley, Hold That Thought: Creating a Cutting Edge Interpretive Design Package that Visitors Will Remember, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), pp. 144-146.
[5] Priscilla Meckley, Master Planning: A Lifetime Full of Experience, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 20.
[6] David L. Manwarren, New Exhibitry: A contractor's Perspective, Zoo Design 4 (Paignton U. K.), p. 125.
[7] Lars Lunding Anderson, Right Enclosure Design - Before Stories Can Be Told, Zoo Design 4, (Paignton, U. K. 1992), p. 79.

CHAPTER 5.3 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND SUMMING UP

[1] Pushp Kumar, Biological Parks in India - Evolution and Trends: An Overview, paper presented at the 46th Ann. Conf., IUDZG (Singapore 1991) p. 11.

APPENDIX A: SURVEY DATA

[] Scores for the bipolar scales rank from zero for the adjectives in CAPITALS to 10 for the lower case adjectives. These scores are the average values of all valid responses for each dimension or combination of dimensions.
[] Scores for the bipolar scales rank from zero for the adjectives in CAPITALS to 10 for the lower case adjectives. These scores are the average values of all valid responses for each dimension or combination of dimensions.
[] Scores for the bipolar scales rank from zero for the adjectives in CAPITALS to 10 for the lower case adjectives. These scores are the average values of all valid responses for each dimension or combination of dimensions.

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